Local Implementation of Greenhouse Gas Reduction Strategies

JETRO Green Building Report Vol. 4
Russell Vare, Green Technology Advisor

Background
California has set aggressive Greenhouse Gas (GHG) reduction targets, yet implementation of these goals will largely be the responsibility of the local level. It is important for state and federal governments to set clear policy in order to give direction, but what is not clear is how local governments can successfully implement this change. Action at the community level will truly bring the bulk of the reductions, as local governments control many aspects of their own buildings, transportation and energy. The massive amount of needed GHG reductions will not only come from technology advancements such as solar panels or electric vehicles. Cities, large and small, will need to change transportation systems, buildings, and neighborhoods to reduce emissions.

However, local governments struggle with limited time, resources and "know-how” in order to implement new GHG reduction policies. In addition, local governments vary so much by population and region that specialized guidance is required. It will not be a simple process to implement these substantial changes. And local governments are reacting differently.

California has some local communities that embrace GHG reduction strategies, others are lost on how to make change, and some resistant to any change at all. It is clear that these actions will need participation from the local community, and state government, academic institutions and non-profits have all begun efforts to foster change. This article reviews activity designed to encourage local level implementation of GHG reduction policies, then looks at activities taken by the cities themselves. Finally, there is a short review of how this compares to the approach taken in Japan with the Eco-Model Cities project.

State Government
California Air Resources Board (ARB)
The California Air Resources Board was established in 1967 to maintain healthy air quality. It has the authority to enforce and regulate air quality standards for vehicles, fuels and consumer products. It also works directly with local air quality districts that regulate stationary sources of air pollution. Other activities include monitoring air quality and conducting research.

In September of 2006, Governor Schwarzenegger signed the Global Warming Solutions Act, also known as Assembly Bill 32 (AB 32), which gave the Air Resources Board the authority to regulate carbon dioxide and other GHG emissions as a public health threat. ARB is the lead organization responsible for implementing, and enforcing, the AB 32 legislation. This is first government agency in the US to be responsible for GHG emissions. The law requires GHG emissions to be reduced to 1990 levels by 2020, which in raw numbers means a reduction back to 427 million metric tons of CO2 each year. This will be a challenge as emissions have historically risen with economic and population growth and stand at more than 600 million metric tons as of 2008. In addition to the goals of AB 32, there is a separate Executive Order by Governor Schwarzenegger that requires GHG reductions of 80% by 2050.

Regulating GHG emissions is a massive undertaking that requires cooperation and coordination from many different government agencies. The AB 32 Scoping Plan analyzes emissions by sector and outlines the main strategies California, including 77 targeted initiatives. The scoping plan has a range of GHG reduction actions which include direct regulations, alternative compliance mechanisms, monetary and non-monetary incentives, voluntary actions, market-based mechanisms such as a cap-and-trade system, and an AB 32 cost of implementation fee regulation to fund the program.

AB 32 regulates emissions for the state as a whole, yet, there is no requirement for California's 478 cities or 58 counties to do anything. Cities and counties may make their own targets, but nothing is enforced. California's Climate Change Scoping Plan encourages local governments to adopt a goal to reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions by 15 percent below today's levels by 2020 and ARB has teams supporting local government implementation.¹ One resource is called the "Local Government Toolkit²" that provides a "one-stop-shop" of guidance and resources to assist local governments to reduce GHG emissions and save money. The first step for a city to take is an inventory of GHG emissions, but this is not easy for local governments as many are limited in the amount of resources they can contribute. ARB is developing a free, California specific, tool for cities and counties to measure emissions.³ Then, based on inventory emissions, there are different actions each local government can take. The emission models will have cost estimates and paybacks built in to allow for easy calculations. ARB is partnering with other organizations such as local air quality districts and the Institute for Local Government (part of the League of Cities) to develop, market and distribute the toolkit.

Another law passed to supplement AB 32 is SB 375, the smart growth initiative to reduce urban sprawl by encouraging regional planning to expand walking, biking, rail and transit-oriented development. There are 17 metropolitan planning agencies in California collaborating to create comprehensive regional targets focused on reducing automotive transport. The law was created with incentives, such as a monumental change to CEQA (California Environmental Quality Act) that makes it easier to build in certain areas. There are very few penalties for cities, but it is being taken seriously. A developer is allowed to sue a city if there is not a zoning allowance for high-density buildings, and cities are required to adopt a sustainable land ordinance or lose some state funding. Attorney General Jerry Brown has taken action to enforce SB 375 and has sued cities that have failed to include GHG emissions not included in CEQA analyses.

Research and Academic Involvement
Research institutions such as UCLA are involved in many areas of climate change from atmospheric research to public policy. The UCLA Institute of the Environment (IoE) has a goal to create, "cross-disciplinary approaches to address critical environmental challenges - including those related to climate change, water quality, air pollution, biodiversity, and sustainability - with the goal of achieving stable human coexistence with the natural systems on which society depends.⁴”

There is also a program focused specifically on the topic of the local-level approach to climate change. It is called the UCLA Program on Local Government Climate Action Policies that generates and disseminates new knowledge to support the creation of state policies addressing local emissions, to assist local governments in meeting these new regulatory demands, and to promote best practices in local government climate action policies. The group has a defined set of initiatives that includes⁵:

• Develop a normative community greenhouse measurement and accountability framework for local jurisdictions that will guide the implementation of performance standards.
• Work with the California Air Resources Board (CARB), and other organizations to develop pragmatic community greenhouse gas measurement guidance.
• Work with CARB and the Regional Targets Advisory Committee to set an effective measurement framework for SB 375 implementation.
• Identify the effectiveness and cost effectiveness of various local climate change mitigation and adaptation policies.
• Evaluate the financing options for such mitigating and adaptive policies.
• Assess the distribution of the full social costs of adaptive and mitigating policies.
• Create policies that address these distributional impacts.

Currently, in California, it is still very early in local climate strategy planning. There are many cities that want to reduce emissions, but do not know their emission numbers. In fact, there are few cities that have measured emissions, set targets and created goals to reduce emissions. For example, there are 188 cities in the Los Angeles Region and many have done nothing, as not all local governments are convinced they want to take action.

It will be useful to discover why some cities have been aggressive, others have not, and which cities have been successful, and why. There is an opportunity for a natural experiment to compare cities and define a qualitative method to compare them. For example, three cities with the currently most impressive sustainability programs are Santa Monica, Berkeley, Chula Vista. Chula Vista is an interesting case because it is predominately poor and Latino, very different from the affluent white neighborhoods of Santa Monica and Berkeley. Evaluation has shown they have done a good job at explaining the co-benefits of climate action such as improved air quality, creating walkable cities and cost-savings associated with energy use and infrastructure build out.

UCLA's research on this subject will show, successes, such as Chula Vista, that can be shared with other cities to allow for more successful implementation. This is important because local governments have jurisdiction over many areas that are big factors in GHG emissions such as water and sewer, energy use, planning and transportation systems and solid waste.

Non Profit Activity
Non-profit organizations are also assisting with the implementation of local GHG reduction strategies. For example, ICLEI (International Council for Local Environmental Initiatives)⁶ is an international association of local governments that have made a commitment to sustainable development. They have developed several tools for local governments to implement sustainability goals, including the "Sustainability Planning Toolkit,⁷” that provides templates and software. It can assist with a GHG inventory and also with strategies on how to reduce emissions by using existing data from many other groups such as city departments and utilities.

ICLEI is an international member-based organization that provides technical consulting, training, and information services to build capacity, share knowledge, and support local government in the implementation of sustainable development at the local level. The basic premise is that locally designed initiatives can provide an effective and cost-efficient way to achieve local, national, and global sustainability objectives. There are 1,124 local governments that are part of the organization. The US office, located in Oakland has 600 local government members in 49 states.

The Local Government Commission (LGC)⁸ is another nonprofit, nonpartisan, membership organization that provides inspiration, technical assistance, and networking to local elected officials and other dedicated community leaders who are working to create healthy, walkable, and resource-efficient communities. The LGC's membership is composed of local elected officials, city and county staff, planners, architects, and community leaders who are committed to making their communities more livable, prosperous, and resource-efficient. Local Government Commission provides inspiration and simplicity to local governments unsure how to proceed with GHG reduction planning and implementation. The LGC works with both progressive local governments such as Sonoma County and Ventura County, but also agencies that have made little action such as San Bernardino County and San Joaquin County. An example of services provided are day-long workshops offered in various cities throughout California on how to implement AB 32 and SB 375 laws and what local governments need to know on climate legislation.

From the Cities
The state government and non-profits are taking action to encourage local implementation, but what have the cities been doing themselves? Some cities have signed their own accords to reduce GHG emissions and are leading the state in sustainability initiatives. This section gives an overview of actions being taken by a large city, a small city, and a campus.

The City of Los Angeles
Los Angeles is a very diverse metropolis with 3.8 million residents. Mayor Antonio Villaraigosa has made strong environmental goals in his first and second term in office. In 2007 he was one of the 600 mayors to sign the "U.S. Conference of Mayors Climate Protection Agreement” that created a pledge to reduce carbon dioxide emissions 7% below 1990 levels by 2012.⁹ The Mayor has surpassed these GHG goals and created a target to reduce carbon emissions 35 percent below 1990 levels by 2030, going beyond the targets of the Kyoto Protocol and representing the most ambitious goal of any large US city.¹⁰

The Mayor's current environmental plan focuses on clean air, clean energy, and conservation of energy and water.¹¹ Some specific targets for these goals are:

1. Clean Power and a 60% carbon reduction.¹² This includes goals for the local municipal utility, LADWP, to (a) increase renewable electricity from 10% to 40% and (b) to be a coal-free city by 2020.
2. Clean the air by reducing pollution at the port and nearby freeways.
3. Increase water savings and energy efficiency by 10%.
4. Green Building retro-fitting to meet LEED specifications and create "green jobs.”

To reach these goals, the City is implementing programs such as energy efficiency investments through the LADWP, green building mandates through the Planning Department and public-private partnerships such as the Clean Tech Corridor (http://mayor.lacity.org/Issues/CleanTech/index.htm). The Clean Tech Corridor is a tax-incentive area in downtown Los Angeles to promote investment for green businesses and promote local job growth – a big focus for the Mayor.

Los Angeles has been able to achieve several notable goals (http://mayor.lacity.org/Issues/Environment/Next4/index.htm) including:

• Meeting the Kyoto targets for greenhouse gas reductions 4 years ahead of schedule. This has been accomplished through efforts such as the LADWP efficiency programs such as the Refrigerator Exchange Program and Small Business Direct Install program for lighting.
• Removing 2,000 dirty diesel trucks from the road. This is part of the Clean Air Action Plan at in conjunction with the Port of Los Angeles at the South Coast Air Quality Management District.
• Achieving 10% of city electricity from renewables. LADWP has quadrupled its renewable energy portfolio in the last four years. According to the Mayor's office, the city on track to meet its current goal of 20% renewables by 2010.

The City of Santa Monica
Santa Monica is a beach community and a very popular tourist destination, with 4.7 million visitors annually. It has 90,000 residents that can increase to 500,000 on a summer day. This means the infrastructure requirements are very large, even for a small city.

Santa Monica has long had environmentally focused policy and environmental advocates on the city council. In 1994, the adopted the Sustainable City Program, a comprehensive strategy which "encourages stewardship of natural resources, establishes targets and goals for measuring progress towards achieving a sustainable community and provides the decision making framework for evaluating the long-term environmental, economic and social impacts of City policies, programs and operations.” The sustainability focus is on the "triple bottom line” that includes: economic development, environmental protection and social justice.

Sustainability interest for the City began in the early 1990s. Two city government officials and one council member were very involved in the movement and attended the Rio Convention. Shortly after, the city created an overarching document with clear targets back in 1992 and it was made an official council directive in 1994. In the 1990s, the program started small to keep a manageable scope. The focus was on municipal operations, which allowed for measurable outcome and results. By keeping the program scope to the municipal level, projects with longer paybacks, but bigger savings was enabled and it allowed the city to take a risk on some projects to find the successes, and failures. The program staff size at this time was 5 employees. In the 2000s, the program expanded its scope and now employs 18 people. The Office of Sustainability and the Environment¹³ was moved from the Public Works Department, and moved to the City Manager's Office. The funding structure was changed to "Enterprise Funds” that generates revenue by fees on trash and water, so it is not subject to funding cuts in an economic downturn.

The Sustainable City Plan¹⁴ is a comprehensive set of targets and strategies for the City of Santa Monica that focus on eight goal areas:

• Resource Conservation
• Environmental and Public Health
• Transportation
• Economic Development
• Open Space and Land Use
• Housing
• Community Education and Civic Participation
• Human Dignity

Specific targets, with a percentage associated for each year, are set in the Sustainable City Plan such as diverting solid waste, increasing renewable energy generation and increasing the number of LEED certified buildings. Progress on meeting these goals are evaluated and a "report card” on how these goals are being met are released each year.¹⁵

In regards to greenhouse gas emissions, Santa Monica has a target of 15% below 1990 levels by 2015. The GHG reduction goal for the city is 30% for city operations and 15% for the community. To achieve these targets, the city is using methods to influence behavior is through pricing. For example, utility fee structures increases with higher volume: the more you use, the more you pay. The city also uses legislation that is introduced by the city office, the public, or city council. For example, the city-wide ban on Styrofoam for food containers came from the public works department to save money in city employee labor wasted picking up litter from food containers.

Some recent, notable achievements of the city are:

• 18% of citywide electricity comes from renewable resources. Solar Santa Monica is one of the programs to help create this achievement by providing free resources to residents and businesses such as solar estimation and links to contractors.
• An aggressive residential energy efficiency program
• 85% of the city municipal fleet is powered by alternative fuels. This has been achieved from leadership within the city departments and partnerships with other local agencies such as the South Coast Air Quality Management District.
• 20 certified LEED buildings including the city's mixed use parking garage. Green Building is one area with the most opportunity for substantial GHG reductions. The city has taken several steps to encourage green building, including dedicating city staff resources, expedited plan checks, grants for retrofits, grants for landscaping, and creating Ordinance 2261 that requires, "all new single-family and multi-family residences under four stories to submit a LEED for Homes checklist, a GreenPoint Rated checklist, or a Santa Monica green building check.¹⁶”
• Solid waste recycling increased by 300% and there is now food waste collection and composting from residents and restaurants.
• A greening program that offers free services to 15 businesses, 150 residences and 450 student trainings each year.

There are several successes of the program that can be shared with other cities through means like Green Cities California (www.greencitiescalifornia.org). Here are examples from Santa Monica that can be replicated by other cities:

• SMURF – Santa Monica Urban Runoff Program has resulted in a massive reduction in pollution.
• Permanent collection site for household toxic waste program has removed thousands of pounds of toxics from landfills.
• Locating the Sustainability office within the City Manager's office instead of Public Works creates more authority for the program to implement new measures.
• Marketing the successes of the City's programs helps public support.
• Green purchasing (procurement) can be easily replicated.

The City of Santa Monica is a progressive city, and will continue to be a leader in sustainability.

Campus Sustainability, UCLA
The University of California, Los Angeles is a public university that has 40,000 full-time enrolled students, 4,000 teaching faculty and ranks among the top 10 schools in the United States. UCLA has its own sustainability office¹⁷ and has developed a Climate Action Plan that outlines the commitment and implementation to reduce GHGs. The full action plan available online at http://www.sustain.ucla.edu/cap/.

Central elements of the plan include:

• Central Plant for campus heating and cooling
• HVAC retrofits
• Transportation – change commuting patterns
• Solar energy generation

Green building is important to the UC system as a whole and has adopted a policy for LEED certification for all new construction.¹⁸

UCLA is also working on programs the change behavior. One is driving, or commuting, behavior. In 2006, the Zip car program started in Los Angeles with a pilot program at UCLA to reduce car ownership and Vehicle Miles Traveled (VMT). This is important, as GHG emissions are a large part of UCLA's GHG profile. Another program was aimed at educating students on energy use. For example, a fume hood in a laboratory can use the same energy as 3.5 houses, but training on the proper use of equipment can have a substantial energy savings.

Japanese Strategy
Japan has taken a different strategy, although they too recognize that the real change and implementation will need to come from the local level. The Japanese central government created a program called the Eco-Model Cities Project (http://www.jetro.org/ecomodelcities) that has created 13 showcase cities each with unique GHG reduction strategies. The cities chosen, through an application process, include a diverse cross section of cities. There are rural areas of a few thousand people and large cities, such as Kitakyushu, with more than 1 million residents.

The sustainability measures are created to match the attributes of the local community. Remote forest areas are focusing on energy from biomass, whereas city centers are focusing on building efficiency, and others are supporting electric vehicle programs.

The Eco-Model Cities project allows sharing of ideas and the most effective programs with other cities throughout Japan. It is a unique approach to the challenge of implementing low carbon strategies at the local level.

Conclusion
As California, and the world, begin to tackle the challenges of climate change, it is clear much of the change will need to come from the local level. The local level controls the policy for many of the attributes that contribute GHGs. However, not all localities are able, or interested, in implementing change.

It is evident that local governments do embrace change when it is seen to improve quality of life through creating walkable cities, clean air and money savings spent for other use. When these strategies for a better quality of life match GHG reduction strategies, the programs can be embraced, making implementation easier for local governments.

Sharing successes from cities locally, and throughout the world is an important effort to help spread successful strategies that can work in other areas. Moving forward, it will be important to link the economic and quality of life benefits with climate change to meet our GHG reduction goals.

A PDF copy of this article can be found online here:
JETRO Green Building Report Vol. 4: Local Implementation of Greenhouse Gas Reduction Strategies (301 KB)

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¹Visit their website for more information (http://www.arb.ca.gov)
²For more information on ARB's Local Government Toolkit strategy, see the following presentations
1. http://www.green-technology.org
2. http://www.green-technology.org
³Expected to be completed in 2011.
⁴www.ioe.ucla.edu/about/
⁵From the organization's website - http://www.lewis.ucla.edu
⁶http://www.iclei.org (International) and http://www.icleiusa.org (USA)
⁷http://www.icleiusa.org
⁸http://www.lgc.org/
⁹http://www.usmayors.org/climateprotection/agreement.htm
¹⁰http://mayor.lacity.org
¹¹http://mayor.lacity.org
¹²From 1990 levels - http://mayor.lacity.org
¹³http://www.smgov.net
¹⁴http://www.smgov.net
¹⁵http://www.smgov.net
¹⁶http://www.smgov.net
¹⁷www.sustain.ucla.edu/
¹⁸http://www.universityofcalifornia.edu